FATF explains how privacy, third-party intermediaries, hidden beneficial ownership, pricing practices and cross-border trade expose art and antiquities markets to money laundering and terrorist financing, while noting that most market participants are not involved in illicit activity.

od Financial Action Task Force (FATF) • 2023-02-27

The US Treasury assesses money-laundering exposure in the high-value art market, including private sales, subjective valuation, intermediaries, free-trade zones, shell companies and value transfer. It also explains that the AML Act applied the BSA framework to antiquities dealers while directing a separate study of the wider art market.

od US Department of the Treasury • 2022-02-04

A US Senate investigation documents how sanctioned individuals used shell companies and intermediaries to conceal beneficial ownership while purchasing high-value art, illustrating the market's exposure to anonymous transactions and sanctions evasion.

od US Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations • 2020-07-29

The official EU legal text extends AML obligations to persons trading or acting as intermediaries in works of art, including galleries and auction houses, for linked transactions of EUR 10,000 or more, and also covers art stored or traded through freeports at that threshold.

od European Parliament and Council of the European Union • 2018-05-30